What is Motivation?

Motivation is defined as "a force or influence that causes someone to do something" (Merriam-Webster). In essence, motivation comes from the need or want for something to be done and a drive that caused the person to satisfy their need. The drive that forces you to go after that need it motivation. Motivation can be summed up in the image below.

(Theories of Motivation)

It is relatively easy to imagine motivations for people, whether it be in their work life or personal life. Perhaps someone wants a promotion at work and that drives them to work harder. Or maybe an athlete wants to participate in the Olympics, which motivates them to train harder. It could even be something as simple as learning to ride a bike just because a sibling could.

While the basic idea behind motivation is the same, scientists and psychologists have come up with many different theories of motivation. The most famous, being perhaps Maslow's Hierarchy of Needs. Other theories include Alderfer’s ERG theory, Mcclellan Acquired Needs Theory, Cognitive Evaluation Theory, Two Factor theory, Equity Theory, Reinforcement Theory and Expectancy Theory. Some of these theories are more similar to each other than others.

 Personally, I believe motivation is what drives the world. Every decision made has a reason behind it, a motivation; a business's motivation is to make a profit, a military's motivation is to protect their country, a student's motivation is to get a degree to get a job. Without some kind of motivation, nothing in the world would get done. In this blog, I'll be exploring the different theories of motivation and how they make people work to achieve their goals

References:

Merriam-Webster. (n.d.). Motivation. Retrieved March 28, 2015, from http://www.merriam-webster.com/dictionary/motivation

Theories of Motivation. (n.d.). Retrieved March 28, 2015, from http://www.analytictech.com/mb021/motivation.htm

Needs Theories

While there are multiple theories of motivation, there are a few that are very similar. These ones are Maslow's Hierarchy of Needs, Alderfer's ERG theory and Mcclellan's Acquired Needs Theory. All three of these theories are based on a human's perceived needs and wants.

Hierarchy of Needs 

Abraham Harold Maslow was a psychologist and a professor that published a highly influential paper in 1943 called A Theory of Human Motivation. In this paper, he outlined “five motivational needs, often depicted as hierarchical levels within a pyramid" (Maslow's Hierarchy of Needs, 2007) such as the one below.

(Rosen, 2011)

 While the order may not necessarily be the same for everyone, Maslow theorized that these were the needs that motivated all humans. His theory was later expanded to include cognitive, aesthetic and transcendence needs. Cognitive needs referred to the need of knowledge and meaning, while aesthetic needs were the "appreciation and search for beauty, balance, form" and transcendence needs were "helping others to achieve self-actualization" (Maslow's Hierarchy of Needs, 2007).

ERG Theory 

Clayton Alderfer's simplified Malsow's Heirarchy of Needs, suggesting that "all human needs can be accessed and satisfied simultaneously, rather than from the bottom up" (Maslow's Hierarchy of Needs, 2007). His ERG theory consisted of three needs:

• Existence - the most basic level 
• Relatedness - the need for "satisfying interpersonal relationships" 
• Growth - the need for "personal growth and development" (Kadian-Baumeyer)

When comparing Alderfer's ERG theory to Maslow's Hierarchy we can see how Alderfer's needs relate to the different levels in the pyramid.

(Alderfer's ERG Theory: Understanding the Priorities in People's Needs)

Alderfer's theory has more flexibility than Maslow's, while still retaining some sort of order. He also claims that the levels are "not as fixed as it is in Maslow's hierarchy" (Alderfer's ERG Theory: Understanding the Priorities in People's Needs) and can change from person to person..

Acquired Needs Theory 

David Mcclellan's Acquired Needs Theory slightly deviates from the other two, stating that "specific needs are acquired over time and are shaped by one's life experiences" (McClelland - Theory of Needs). He categorizes these needs into three categories: achievement, affiliation and power. The need to "accomplish something difficult", "form close personal relationships" and the need to "control others" (Theories of Motivation). Needs can be measured through the Thematic Appreciation Test, in which the test taker interprets image, like the one below, into a story.

(TAT)

Conclusion 

All of these theories are based around needs that either come biologically, culturally or through experience. These three scientists agree on the fact that motivation comes from a certain need and that need is what drives a person to go after certain goals.

References

Alderfer's ERG Theory - Existence, Relatedness, and Growth. (2012, January 1). Retrieved March 28, 2015, from http://www.leadership-central.com/erg-theory.html#axzz3VhZYkaiQ

Alderfer's ERG Theory: Understanding the Priorities in People's Needs. (n.d.). Retrieved March 28, 2015, from http://www.mindtools.com/pages/article/newTMM_78.htm

Kadian-Baumeyer, K. (n.d.). Alderfer's ERG Theory & Employee Motivation in the Workplace. Retrieved March 28, 2015, from http://study.com/academy/lesson/alderfers-erg-theory-employee-motivation-in-the-workplace.html

Maslow's Hierarchy of Needs. (2007, September 17). Retrieved March 28, 2015, from http://www.simplypsychology.org/maslow.html

Maslow, A. (2000, August 1). Classics in the History of Psychology -- A. H. Maslow (1943) A Theory of Human Motivation. Retrieved March 28, 2015, from http://psychclassics.yorku.ca/Maslow/motivation.htm

McClelland - Theory of Needs. (n.d.). Retrieved March 28, 2015, from http://www.netmba.com/mgmt/ob/motivation/mcclelland/

Rosen, L. (2011, October 7). Maslow’s Hierarchy of Needs. Retrieved March 28, 2015, from http://www.21stcentech.com/transportation-part-6-the-21st-century-and-the-automobile-what-will-we-use-to-make-them/maslow/

TAT. (n.d.). Retrieved March 28, 2015, from http://www.utpsyc.org/TATintro/

Theories of Motivation. (n.d.). Retrieved March 28, 2015, from http://www.analytictech.com/mb021/motivation.htm

Reinforcement Theories

Operant Conditioning 

Operant Conditioning is an "approach to behaviourism" Huitt, W., & Hummel, J. (1997) that focuses on conditioning based on reinforcement. A certain type of stimulus is applied, which can either cause positive or negative behaviour, which in turn results in a certain action being taken. The 4 types of Operant Conditioning are positive reinforcement, negative reinforcement, punishment and extinction. "Both Positive and Negative Reinforcement strengthen behavior while both Punishment and Extinction weaken behavior", as can be seen below in the table more clearly.

	Apply	Withhold
Reward	positive reinforcement (raise above baseline)	negative reinforcement (raise up to baseline)
Stressor	punishment (bring down below baseline)	extinction (stay at baseline)

(Theories of Motivation)

Reinforcement Schedules Stimulus are presented "in the environment according to a schedule". There are four intermittent schedules that stimulus are applied in.

• Fixed Interval Schedule - reinforcement given after a fixed period of time 
• Fixed Ratio Schedule - reinforcement given after a certain number of responses 
• Variable Interval Schedule - reinforcement given after varying times 
• Variable Ratio Schedule - reinforcement given after varying times of responses. 

The schedules are compared in the chart below:

(Cherry)

Operant Conditioning is different from Classical Conditioning in the sense that Operant Conditioning focuses on "strengthening or weakening voluntary behaviors" while Classical Conditioning focuses on "involuntary, automatic behaviors". As such, Operant Conditioning is much more suited in motivating someone, whereas Classical Condition is suited in training someone to do something without a motivation. The video below gives a more detailed explanation about the differences between the two types of conditioning.

References

Cherry, K. (n.d.). Classical vs Operant Conditioning. Retrieved March 28, 2015, from http://psychology.about.com/od/behavioralpsychology/a/classical-vs-operant-conditioning.htm

Huitt, W., & Hummel, J. (1997). An introduction to operant (instrumental) conditioning. Educational Psychology Interactive. Valdosta, GA: Valdosta State University. Retrieved March 28, 15 from http://www.edpsycinteractive.org/topics/behavior/operant.html

The difference between classical and operant conditioning - Peggy Andover. (2013, March 7). Retrieved March 28, 2015, from https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=H6LEcM0E0io&feature=youtu.be

Theories of Motivation. (n.d.). Retrieved March 28, 2015, from http://www.analytictech.com/mb021/motivation.htm

Motivational Theories for the Workplace

There are a couple of motivational theories that don't really fall into categories quite as well as the other ones. The theories are John S. Adam's Equity Theory and Victor H. Vroom's Expectancy Theory. Both of these theories are ones that are especially designed for the workplace.

Equity Theory 

The Equity Theory that was developed by Adams and is “concerned with defining and measuring the relational satisfaction of employees”. It is based on the perception of equity in their workplace. It states that people are motivated by “fairness and that discrepancies in this fairness in the workplace” (What is Equity Theory?, 2013) will result in them trying to fix it.

Expectancy Theory 

Vroom's Expectancy Theory "assumes that behavior results from conscious choices among alternatives whose purpose it is to maximize pleasure and minimize pain" (Vroom's expectancy theory). In essence, it says that people make decisions to reduce the amount of pain and gain the most pleasure they can. This theory has three factors that make it up, expectancy, instrumentality and valence, which when multiplied together results in Motivational Force.

(Redmond)

Expectancy - "refers to emotional orientations which people hold with respect to outcomes"

Instrumentality - "refers to employees’ different expectations and levels of confidence about what they are capable of doing"

Valence - "refers to the perception of employees whether they will actually receive what they desire" (Redmond)

Conclusion

These theories, while not as famous as other ones were theorized to motivate workers, and find the best way to get employees to be motivated in their work to help achieve organizational goals. 

References

Redmond, B. (n.d.). 4. Expectancy Theory. Retrieved March 28, 2015, from https://wikispaces.psu.edu/display/psych484/4. expectancy theory

Theories of Motivation. (n.d.). Retrieved March 28, 2015, from http://www.analytictech.com/mb021/motivation.htm

Vroom's expectancy theory. (n.d.). Retrieved March 28, 2015, from http://www.ifm.eng.cam.ac.uk/research/dstools/vrooms-expectancy-theory/

What is Equity Theory? (2013, July 25). Retrieved March 28, 2015, from http://www.hrzone.com/hr-glossary/what-is-equity-theory

Intrinsic vs. Extrinsic Motivation

Motivation comes not only from needs, but also different motivators. There are some theories that propose there are certain motivators that influence a person to want to achieve something. These motivators can be either intrinsic or extrinsic. The two main theories are the Cognitive Evaluation Theory and the Two Factor Theory.

Intrinsic vs. Extrinsic Motivation 

Intrinsic motivation refers to motivation that comes from within and "is not dependent on any external reward or punishment" (Meer, 2013). Extrinsic motivation is the opposite and is motivation that comes from achieving an award. An example of intrinsic motivation is someone who paints because they enjoy it, while someone who paints for commission if an example of extrinsic motivation. Below is a video that demonstrates the difference intrinsic and extrinsic motivators through a real life example.

Cognitive Evaluation Theory 

The Cognitive Evaluation Theory is a theory of motivation that is based on intrinsic and extrinsic motivations. The theory states that bringing in extrinsic motivators hurts intrinsic ones. It says that by introducing extrinsic motivators, the intrinsic ones go down which could have a negative effect when trying to motivate someone without external rewards or punishments.

Two Factor Theory

Frederick Herzberg's Two Factor theory states that there are two factors that affect motivation, hygiene and motivators. Hygiene factors are extrinsic motivators like salary and benefits "whose absence motivates". Motivators on the other hand are intrinsic "whose presence motivates" (Theories of Motivation). Conclusion In the end, both these theories are based on intrinsic and extrinsic motivational factors. These two factors, are according to both theories, are vital in motivating people to achieve something and can also be applied to other theories such as Maslow's Hierarchy of Needs.

Conclusion

All of these theories are based around needs that either come biologically, culturally or through experience. These three scientists agree on the fact that motivation comes from a certain need and that need is what drives a person to go after certain goals.

References

Extra Credits: Intrinsic vs Extrinsic. (2013, March 28). Retrieved March 28, 2015, from https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=h86g-XgUCA8

Herzberg's Two-Factor Theory - Boundless Open Textbook. (n.d.). Retrieved March 28, 2015, from https://www.boundless.com/management/textbooks/boundless-management-textbook/organizational-behavior-5/employee-needs-and-motivation-46/herzberg-s-two-factor-theory-239-6609/

Meer, H. (2013, November 9). Intrinsic Motivation and Extrinsic Motivation - Study OB. Retrieved March 28, 2015, from http://studyob.com/intrinsic-motivation-extrinsic-motivation/

Meer, H. (2013, November 23). Cognitive Evaluation Theory of Motivation (CET) - Study OB. Retrieved March 28, 2015, from http://studyob.com/cognitive-evaluation-theory/

Theories of Motivation. (n.d.). Retrieved March 28, 2015, from http://www.analytictech.com/mb021/motivation.htm